With the late - summer ice edge located farther north than it used to be, storms produce larger waves and more
coastal erosion.5 An additional contributing factor is that
coastal bluffs that were «cemented» by ice - rich permafrost are beginning to thaw in response to warmer air and ocean waters, and are therefore more vulnerable to erosion.22 Standard defensive adaptation strategies to protect
coastal communities from erosion, such as use of rock walls, sandbags, and riprap, have been largely unsuccessful.23 Several
coastal communities are seeking to relocate to escape erosion that threatens infrastructure and services but, because of high costs and policy constraints on use of federal funds for community relocation, only one
Alaskan village has begun to relocate (see also Ch.