The combination of active and passive co-regulation strategies with school - age children with ASD may be most beneficial as prompting helps guide a child's emotional experience, while emotion following helps a child internalize
adaptive emotion regulation skills (Cole et al. 2009).
Disorganized attached individuals lack
adaptive emotion regulation skills [112], which promotes higher physiological arousal in a challenging situation.
As described by Morelen and Suveg (2012), when their parents discussed emotion in a supportive way, children were better able to use
adaptive emotion regulation behaviors.
We suggest that a more plausible mechanism of change in psychotherapy is acquisition of
adaptive emotion regulation strategies.
PNS activation can also occur, as for example in the freezing or fainting response [70], or as a result of
adaptive emotion regulation [71].
Based on theoretical assumptions, we expected Maladaptive Emotion Regulation to be related positively and
Adaptive Emotion Regulation to be related negatively to (a) parental reports of internalizing and externalizing problems [14,19], (b) depressive symptoms [14,16 — 18], (c) low self - worth [13], and (d) restrictive eating disorder symptoms [15].
FEEL - KJ
Adaptive Emotion Regulation correlated negatively with both CBCL Internalizing Problems, r = -0.14, p = 0.004, and CBCL Externalizing Problems, r = -0.11, p = 0.029.
Test - retest correlation coefficients for the higher - order scales were 0.90 for
Adaptive Emotion Regulation and 0.88 for Maladaptive Emotion Regulation.
FEEL - KJ
Adaptive Emotion Regulation correlated negatively with the three included EDI - II subscales Bulimia, r = -0.16, p = 0.001, Body Dissatisfaction, r = -0.17, p = 0.001, and Drive for Thinness, r = -0.13, p = 0.006.
Development of self - control and
adaptive emotion regulation strategies is an ongoing process that progresses rapidly through the preschool years [23] and continues to develop and emerge through adolescence [24] and into emerging adulthood [18 •](see [15] for a review of emotion regulation development).
More specifically, the model was estimated under the restriction that the covariance between the higher - order factors
Adaptive Emotion Regulation and Maladaptive Emotion Regulation should be equal to the mean of the covariances between the higher - order factor
Adaptive Emotion Regulation and the lower - order factors Avoidance, Dysfunctional Thoughts, and Aggression.
Based on an exploratory factor analysis (EFA), Grob and Smolenski [26] concluded in the test manual that the first seven strategies can be classified as
Adaptive Emotion Regulation and the next six strategies as Maladaptive Emotion Regulation.
If the problem proves to be persistent,
an adaptive emotion regulation response may then be to focus on strategies whose aim is to attenuate the intensity of the negative emotions (i.e., Distraction, Forgetting, Humor Enhancement, and Revaluation).
In the test manual [26], internal consistency for the secondary scales was α = 0.82 for Maladaptive Emotion Regulation and α = 0.93 for
Adaptive Emotion Regulation.
The investigation of the internal structure confirmed earlier reports of a two - factor structure with
Adaptive Emotion Regulation and Maladaptive Emotion Regulation as overarching categories [26].
For FEEL - KJ
Adaptive Emotion Regulation, a strong positive relation was found with CERQ
Adaptive Emotion Regulation, r = 0.67, p < 0.001, and a weak positive relation was found with CERQ Non-
Adaptive Emotion Regulation, r = 0.16, p = 0.032.
In this line of reasoning, Dysfunctional Thoughts and
Adaptive Emotion Regulation may be related positively because the former is a common response to the failure of the latter.
That is, the results indicated that the Maladaptive Emotion Regulation factor should be subdivided into three lower - level factors (i.e., Avoidance, Dysfunctional Thoughts, and Aggression) on the basis of their relation with
the Adaptive Emotion Regulation factor.
For the higher - order scales, internal consistency was 0.94 for
Adaptive Emotion Regulation and 0.86 for Maladaptive Emotion Regulation.
Dysfunctional Thoughts, on the other hand, correlated positively with
Adaptive Emotion Regulation.
As can be expected from relations between maladaptive and adaptive strategies, Avoidance correlated negatively and Aggression did not correlate with
Adaptive Emotion Regulation.
For FEEL - KJ Maladaptive Emotion Regulation, on the other hand, a positive relation was found with CERQ Non-
Adaptive Emotion Regulation, r = 0.36, p < 0.001, and no relation was found with CERQ
Adaptive Emotion Regulation, r = -0.11, p = 0.123.
A possible explanation for this positive relation is that Rumination and Self - Devaluation are often a reaction to the failure of
adaptive emotion regulation strategies.
In addition, experiencing depressive symptoms is often associated with the use of less effective and
adaptive emotion regulation strategies such as avoidance, rumination and suppression (see for a review Aldao et al. 2010).
This might be explained by the findings that adolescents who experience depressive symptoms use less
adaptive emotion regulation strategies (Aldao et al. 2010), and experience more academic difficulties (Jaycox et al. 2009).
In the eating disorder literature, it is well established that emotion regulation may be compromised among people with BED [63], and that people with BED utilize less
adaptive emotion regulation strategies than healthy controls [64].
Not exact matches
Fostering self -
regulation skills, that enable children to direct their attention, manage
emotions, keep track of rules, inhibit their impulses, and control their behaviour in other
adaptive ways.
One final example is the prefrontal cortex, which is thought to play an important role in regulating behavior by suppressing impulses and
emotions arising from the amygdala and other parts of the limbic system.50 — 52 In animal studies, exposure to chronic stress or glucocorticoids alters the synaptic connectivity within the prefrontal cortex, 52,53 and this may limit the ability of the prefrontal cortex to (1) suppress the impulsivity and aggression of the limbic system, and (2) execute
adaptive responses (rather than maladaptive responses) to stress.54 — 56 Stress - induced changes in brain structure parallel the well - described impact of significant childhood adversity on a variety of brain functions, including the modulation of physiologic responses (hyper - responsive or chronically active stress response), learning (impaired memory), and the
regulation of behavior (the ability to execute
adaptive vs maladaptive responses to stress).3, 39,57
As we learn to decrease activation in the nervous system by employing tools and techniques such as those listed above, we are able to increase the range of resilience or window of tolerance and establish more
adaptive self -
regulation of
emotions.
Divergent associations of
adaptive and maladaptive
emotion regulation strategies with inflammation
The
adaptive regulation of
emotion is critical for social functioning and psychological well - being.
To investigate the internal structure of the FEEL - KJ, we attempted to replicate previous reports of an orthogonal two - factor structure (
Adaptive and Maladaptive
Emotion Regulation) with both EFA and CFA [26].
The Cognitive
Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ), for instance, measures 5 adaptive and 4 non-adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies that children and adolescents use when they experience negative life events [
Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ), for instance, measures 5 adaptive and 4 non-adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies that children and adolescents use when they experience negative life event
Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ), for instance, measures 5
adaptive and 4 non-
adaptive cognitive
emotion regulation strategies that children and adolescents use when they experience negative life events [
emotion regulation strategies that children and adolescents use when they experience negative life event
regulation strategies that children and adolescents use when they experience negative life events [16,25].
Twelve of these strategies can be classified under the widely used higher order categories
adaptive and maladaptive
emotion regulation [6,27], making the FEEL - KJ useful for developmental psychopathology research.
To evaluate the construct validity of the FEEL - KJ, we first calculated correlations between the FEEL - KJ higher - order scales (
Adaptive and Maladaptive
Emotion Regulation) and the CERQ higher - order scales (
Adaptive and Non-
Adaptive Emotion Regulation).
It therefore remains to be tested directly to what extent the proposed two - factor model (i.e.,
Adaptive and Maladaptive
Emotion Regulation) provides a good description of the FEEL - KJ internal structure.
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy [DBT] Group [Adults]: Frequently used to treat symptoms associated with Borderline Personality Disorder, clients in DBT can expect to be assigned therapeutic homework, role - play alternate ways of interacting with other people, and practice
adaptive coping skills such as distress tolerance,
emotion regulation, mindfulness, radical acceptance, interpersonal effectiveness and other positive means of managing intense feelings or
emotions when angry, depressed, anxious, or upset.
Following participation in the Zoo U game - based SST program, the treatment group showed enhanced social skills in the areas of impulse control,
emotion regulation, and social initiation, as well as more
adaptive social behavior compared to the control group.
The strategies (in both behavioral domains and
emotion regulation) learnt in infancy, constitute an
adaptive advantage because they promote faster and more specific responses within the EEA.
The correlation matrix suggested, in other words, that the Maladaptive
Emotion Regulation factor should be subdivided into three lower - level factors based on their correlation with the
adaptive strategies.
Frequently used to treat the symptoms associated with Borderline Personality Disorder, clients in DBT can expect to be assigned therapeutic homework, role - play alternate ways of interacting with other people, and practice positive and
adaptive coping skills such as distress tolerance,
emotion regulation, mindfulness, radical acceptance, interpersonal effectiveness and other positive means of managing intense feelings or
emotions when angry, depressed, anxious, or upset.
Once these problems have been addressed, cognitive behavioral techniques can be applied to reduce the use of maladaptive strategies and increase the use of
adaptive strategies based on the
emotion regulation profile derived from the FEEL - KJ.
An interesting instrument in this respect is the FEEL - KJ because it measures 7
adaptive and 5 maladaptive
emotion regulation strategies in response to three different
emotions.
Recent research has emphasized the importance of studying the interaction between
adaptive and maladaptive
emotion regulation strategies in predicting mental health.
The core of MBSR consists of mindfulness exercises that serve to increase awareness of sensations,
emotions and thoughts, to provide self -
regulation strategies, and to promote healthy and
adaptive responses to stress.
Given these relations between
emotion regulation and psychological health, it would be helpful to have a reliable and valid instrument to assess
adaptive and maladaptive
emotion regulation strategies for the age group of children and adolescents.
The authors also found that, using a global emotional and motivational scaffolding scale, mothers demonstrated improved co-
regulation (i.e. higher ratings of global motivational and emotional scaffolding, higher frequency of more
adaptive strategies such as redirection of attention) over the course of the intervention, and that this was also associated with improvements in toddler
emotion regulation (i.e. less expressed negativity and avoidance).
Given the key role of
emotion regulation in supporting mental health and other
adaptive outcomes, such understanding may have important clinical relevance as well.
In adolescence, both typically developing youth and those with ASD report similar levels of
adaptive, voluntary forms of
emotion regulation (e.g., problem solving, emotional control), but those with ASD report higher levels of involuntary
emotion regulation strategies that are generally considered to be maladaptive (e.g., rumination, intrusive thoughts, physiological and emotional arousal, mind going blank and numb)(Mazefsky et al. 2014).