Gregory 02 provides a good explanation for the basis of what I have done, although its observational data (and its model derived
aerosol forcing change) has now been superceded.
The aerosol forcing change has been fairly flat over the last few decades according to the AR5 figure.
It allows
aerosol forcing changes to be estimated from observations using the fact that aerosols are mostly in the NH.
Not exact matches
Taking factors such as sea surface temperature, greenhouse gases and natural
aerosol particles into consideration, the researchers determined that
changes in the concentration of black carbon could be the primary driving
force behind the observed alterations to the hydrological cycle in the region.
Climate model projections neglecting these
changes would continue to overestimate the radiative
forcing and global warming in coming decades if these
aerosols remain present at current values or increase.
Near - global satellite
aerosol data imply a negative radiative
forcing due to stratospheric
aerosol changes over this period of about — 0.1 W / m2, reducing the recent global warming that would otherwise have occurred.
Professor Sybren said: «It can be excluded, however, that this hiatus period was solely caused by
changes in atmospheric
forcing, either due to volcanic eruptions, more
aerosols emissions in Asia, or reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
Similarly (and perhaps relatedly), the magnitude of the
change in
aerosol forcing from ~ 1975 to present relative to the
change in all
forcings is much smaller than from pre-ind through present, which I think should make the TCR estimated over that period insensitive to the value of E.
Indeed the estimate of
aerosol forcing used in the calculation of transient climate response (TCR) in the paper does not come directly from climate models, but instead incorporates an adjustment to those models so that the
forcing better matches the assessed estimates from the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC).
There are multiple anthropogenic
forcings that have quite different impacts (e.g. anthropogenic greenhouse gas increases,
aerosols, land - use
changes and, yes, stratospheric ozone depletion).
The total
forcing from the trace greenhouse gases mentioned in Step 3, is currently about 2.5 W / m2, and the net
forcing (including cooling impacts of
aerosols and natural
changes) is 1.6 ± 1.0 W / m2 since the pre-industrial.
Themes:
Aerosols, Arctic and Antarctic climate, Atmospheric Science, Climate modelling, Climate sensitivity, Extreme events, Global warming, Greenhouse gases, Mitigation of Climate
Change, Present - day observations, Oceans, Paleo - climate, Responses to common contrarian arguments, The Practice of Science, Solar
forcing, Projections of future climate, Climate in the media, Meeting Reports, Miscellaneous.
My main problem with that study is that the weather models don't use any
forcings at all — no
changes in ozone, CO2, volcanos,
aerosols, solar etc. — and so while some of the effects of the
forcings might be captured (since the weather models assimilate satellite data etc.), there is no reason to think that they get all of the signal — particularly for near surface effects (tropospheric ozone for instance).
While a relatively minor part of the overall
aerosol mass,
changes in the anthropogenic portion of
aerosols since 1750 have resulted in a globally averaged net radiative
forcing of roughly -1.2 W / m2, in comparison to the overall average CO2
forcing of +1.66 W / m2.
The
forcing over the last 150 years is around 1.6 W / m2 (including cooling effects from
aerosols and land use
change) but the climate is not (yet) in equilibirum, and so the full temperature response has not been acheived.
Forcing caused by changes in the Sun's brightness, by dust in the atmosphere, or by volcanic aerosols can also be translated into radiative f
Forcing caused by
changes in the Sun's brightness, by dust in the atmosphere, or by volcanic
aerosols can also be translated into radiative
forcingforcing.
Forcing changes of similar magnitude, due to water vapour variations, are measurable as regional temperature
changes in Europe, see Philipona, but
aerosol changes are not...
And finally, current theories based on greenhouse gas increases,
changes in solar, volcanic, ozone, land use and
aerosol forcing do a pretty good job of explaining the temperature
changes over the 20th Century.
Steven J. Ghan • Contributing Author, Working Group I, «
Aerosols, Their Direct and Indirect Effects,» IPCC Third Assessment Report (2001) • Contributing Author, Working Group I, «Radiative
Forcing of Climate
Change,» IPCC Third Assessment Report (2001).
In addition, researchers calculated the
changes in the shortwave and longwave and net radiation between the pre-industrial simulation and the present - day simulations to estimate the radiative
forcing resulting from the
aerosol effects on cirrus clouds.
The top priorities should be reducing uncertainties in climate sensitivity, getting a better understanding of the effect of climate
change on atmospheric circulation (critical for understanding of regional climate
change,
changes in extremes) and reducing uncertainties in radiative
forcing — particularly those associated with
aerosols.
This method tries to maximize using pure observations to find the temperature
change and the
forcing (you might need a model to constrain some of the
forcings, but there's a lot of uncertainty about how the surface and atmospheric albedo
changed during glacial times... a lot of studies only look at dust and not other
aerosols, there is a lot of uncertainty about vegetation
change, etc).
Forster and Gregory (2006) estimate ECS based on radiation budget data from the ERBE combined with surface temperature observations based on a regression approach, using the observation that there was little
change in
aerosol forcing over that time.
Clearly, there are many positive
forcings (warming influences) and negative
forcings (cooling influences)-- the total includes methane, N2O, black carbon, small
changes in sunlight,
aerosols, etc..
The measured energy imbalance accounts for all natural and human - made climate
forcings, including
changes of atmospheric
aerosols and Earth's surface albedo.
Specification now of a CO2 target more precise than < 350 ppm is difficult and unnecessary, because of uncertain future
changes of
forcings including other gases,
aerosols and surface albedo.
Thus to provide the clearest picture of the CO2 effect, we approximate the net future
change of human - made non-CO2
forcings as zero and we exclude future
changes of natural climate
forcings, such as solar irradiance and volcanic
aerosols.
In addition, both internal variability and
aerosol forcing are likely to affect tropical storms in large part though
changes in ocean temperature gradients (thereby
changing ITCZ position and vertical shear), while greenhouse gases likely exert their influence by more uniformly
changing ocean and tropospheric temperatures, so the physics of the problem may suggest this decomposition as more natural as well.
One type of inverse method uses the ranges of climate
change fingerprint scaling factors derived from detection and attribution analyses that attempt to separate the climate response to greenhouse gas
forcing from the response to
aerosol forcing and often from natural
forcing as well (Gregory et al., 2002a; Stott et al., 2006c; see also Section 9.4.1.4).
Earth's measured energy imbalance has been used to infer the climate
forcing by
aerosols, with two independent analyses yielding a
forcing in the past decade of about − 1.5 W / m2 [64], [72], including the direct
aerosol forcing and indirect effects via induced cloud
changes.
These provide the range of fingerprint magnitudes (e.g., for the combined temperature response to different
aerosol forcings) that are consistent with observed climate
change, and can therefore be used to infer the likely range of
forcing that is consistent with the observed record.
For the sake of interpreting on - going and future climate
change it is highly desirable to obtain precise monitoring of the global
aerosol forcing [73].
In addition, since the global surface temperature records are a measure that responds to albedo
changes (volcanic
aerosols, cloud cover, land use, snow and ice cover) solar output, and differences in partition of various
forcings into the oceans / atmosphere / land / cryosphere, teasing out just the effect of CO2 + water vapor over the short term is difficult to impossible.
More importantly, this system has the very nice property that the global mean of instantaneous
forcing calculations (the difference in the radiation fluxes at the tropopause when you
change greenhouse gases or
aerosols or whatever) are a very good predictor for the eventual global mean response.
To better understand what Kilimanjaro and other tropical glaciers are telling us about climate
change, one ultimately ought to drive a set of tropical glacier models with GCM simulations conducted with and without anthropogenic
forcing (greenhouse gases and sulfate
aerosol).
Of the
forcings leading to a warming in the early part of the records, solar, decreasing volcanism and GHGs all play a part (and with a role for cooling due to land use
change and
aerosol increases).
The important point here is that a small external
forcing (orbital for ice - ages, or GHG plus
aerosols & land use
changes in the modern context) can be strongly amplified by the positive feedback mechanism (the strongest and quickest is atmospheric water vapor - a strong GHG, and has already been observed to increase.
The total
forcing from the trace greenhouse gases mentioned in Step 3, is currently about 2.5 W / m2, and the net
forcing (including cooling impacts of
aerosols and natural
changes) is 1.6 ± 1.0 W / m2 since the pre-industrial.
Now if this were the case,
changes in the
forcing due to reflective
aerosols at roughly the beginning of World War II and shortly after the enforcement of the Clean Air Laws in the developed economies might very well explain a transition from one climate mode regime to another — that is, if the climate system is particularly sensitive to
changes in
forcings.
The most extreme scenario postulated in TAR (A1F1) already has a big reduction in sulphate
aerosol forcing, and so the temperature
changes by 2100 are almost purely a function of the GHG
forcing.
Also, due to the multiplicity of anthropogenic and natural effects on the climate over this time (i.e.
aerosols, land - use
change, greenhouse gases, ozone
changes, solar, volcanic etc.) it is difficult to accurately define the
forcings.
If you «use all of the data» you can't detect any
change in trend from
forcings known to make a difference (e.g. sulfate
aerosols, which peaked in the 1940 - 1970 range from US sources and again later from Chinese).
While there is good data over the last century, there were many different
changes to planet's radiation balance (greenhouse gases,
aerosols, solar
forcing, volcanoes, land use
changes etc.), some of which are difficult to quantify (for instance the indirect
aerosol effects) and whose history is not well known.
I have no doubts about the fact that climate
change is happening and that the warming trend is real and unusual, given the GHG /
aerosol forcings.
As well as effective
aerosol forcing of -1.2 W / m2 being mcuh stronger than the IPCC AR5 ERF of ~ -0.7 W / m2 over 1850 - 2000, the land use
change effective
forcing of -0.7 W / m2, arsign from a very high efficacy of 3.89, seems absurd to me.
But more generally, something I've wondered is: while in the global annual average,
aerosols could be said to partly cancel (net effect) the warming from anthropogenic greenhouse
forcing, the circulatory, latitudinal, regional, seasonal, diurnal, and internal variability
changes would be some combination of reduced
changes from reduced AGW + some other
changes related to
aerosol forcing.
So the climate sensitivity is itself very sensitive to
changes in the negative
forcing from
aerosols.
Except that GHG
forcing + cooling
aerosol forcing results in less precipitation globally in general than reduced GHG
forcing that produces the same global average temperature, as found in «Climate
Change Methadone» elsewhere at RC.
For instance, simulations were run that only used the
changes in volcanic
forcing, or in land use or in tropospheric
aerosols.
You need information about the degree of intrinsic variability, estimates of the natural
forcings (principally solar and volcanic), and estimates of the human related
forcings (GHGs, land use
change,
aerosols etc.).