Likely no net
aerosol forcing effect.
Some of these studies use the difference between Northern and Southern Hemisphere mean temperature to separate the greenhouse gas and
aerosol forcing effects (e.g., Andronova and Schlesinger, 2001; Harvey and Kaufmann, 2002).
Not exact matches
The models, which factor in natural
effects such as solar winds and volcanic eruptions, along with anthropogenic
forcings like greenhouse gases and
aerosols, match these precipitation variations accurately in trend and reasonably well in magnitude.
One just included the effective influence on temperatures from manmade
forces (including greenhouse gases and
aerosols, which tend to have a cooling
effect), while the second included both manmade and natural ones (including volcanic activity and solar radiation).
My main problem with that study is that the weather models don't use any
forcings at all — no changes in ozone, CO2, volcanos,
aerosols, solar etc. — and so while some of the
effects of the
forcings might be captured (since the weather models assimilate satellite data etc.), there is no reason to think that they get all of the signal — particularly for near surface
effects (tropospheric ozone for instance).
Now if this was the 1980s they might have had a point, but the fact that
aerosols are an important climate
forcing, have a net cooling
effect on climate and, in part, arise from the same industrial activities that produce greenhouse gases, has been part of mainstream science for 30 years.
The
forcing over the last 150 years is around 1.6 W / m2 (including cooling
effects from
aerosols and land use change) but the climate is not (yet) in equilibirum, and so the full temperature response has not been acheived.
The cooling
effect from this
aerosol forcing is thought to be about half that of greenhouse gases, but in the opposing (cooling) direction.
In addition, researchers calculated the changes in the shortwave and longwave and net radiation between the pre-industrial simulation and the present - day simulations to estimate the radiative
forcing resulting from the
aerosol effects on cirrus clouds.
The top priorities should be reducing uncertainties in climate sensitivity, getting a better understanding of the
effect of climate change on atmospheric circulation (critical for understanding of regional climate change, changes in extremes) and reducing uncertainties in radiative
forcing — particularly those associated with
aerosols.
Only a few estimates account for uncertainty in
forcings other than from
aerosols (e.g., Gregory et al., 2002a; Knutti et al., 2002, 2003); some other studies perform some sensitivity testing to assess the
effect of
forcing uncertainty not accounted for, for example, in natural
forcing (e.g., Forest et al., 2006; see Table 9.1 for an overview).
Most studies consider a range of anthropogenic
forcing factors, including greenhouse gases and sulphate
aerosol forcing, sometimes directly including the indirect
forcing effect, such as Knutti et al. (2002, 2003), and sometimes indirectly accounting for the indirect
effect by using a wide range of direct
forcing (e.g., Andronova and Schlesinger, 2001; Forest et al., 2002, 2006).
We don't know the total
forcing that well, primarily because we don't know the
aerosol (direct or indirect)
effects.
It is rather surprising that adding cloud lifetime
effect forcing makes any difference, insofar as Aldrin is estimating indirect and direct
aerosol forcings as part of his Bayesian procedure.
The total of -0.7 W / m ^ 2 is the same as the best observational (satellite) total
aerosol adjusted
forcing estimate given in the leaked Second Order Draft of AR5 WG1, which includes cloud lifetime (2nd indirect) and other
effects.
When Aldrin adds a fixed cloud lifetime
effect of -0.25 W / m ^ 2
forcing on top of his variable parameter direct and (1st) indirect
aerosol forcing, the mode of the sensitivity PDF increases from 1.6 to 1.8.
Thus to provide the clearest picture of the CO2
effect, we approximate the net future change of human - made non-CO2
forcings as zero and we exclude future changes of natural climate
forcings, such as solar irradiance and volcanic
aerosols.
The indirect
aerosol effect on clouds is non-linear [1], [76] such that it has been suggested that even the modest
aerosol amounts added by pre-industrial humans to an otherwise pristine atmosphere may have caused a significant climate
forcing [59].
In addressing the question of the
effects of greenhouse gases on Atlantic tropical storms, it might clarify (and even partially defuse) the controversy to lump internal variability together with other
forced responses (particularly
aerosols), rather than to focus on internal variability vs the total
forced response.
Earth's measured energy imbalance has been used to infer the climate
forcing by
aerosols, with two independent analyses yielding a
forcing in the past decade of about − 1.5 W / m2 [64], [72], including the direct
aerosol forcing and indirect
effects via induced cloud changes.
al., Earth's Energy Imbalance and Implications suggests that many climate models underestimate the
effect of positive climate
forcings but also underestimate the
effects of negative
forcings due to
aerosols.
In addition, since the global surface temperature records are a measure that responds to albedo changes (volcanic
aerosols, cloud cover, land use, snow and ice cover) solar output, and differences in partition of various
forcings into the oceans / atmosphere / land / cryosphere, teasing out just the
effect of CO2 + water vapor over the short term is difficult to impossible.
From the Physical Science Basis: «Shindell et al. (2009) estimated the impact of reactive species emissions on both gaseous and
aerosol forcing species and found that ozone precursors, including methane, had an additional substantial climate
effect because they increased or decreased the rate of oxidation of SO2 to sulphate
aerosol.
There are indeed uncertainties in
aerosol forcing (not just the indirect
effects) and, especially in the earlier part of the 20th Century, uncertainties in solar trends and impacts.
It is my understanding that the uncertainties regarding climate sensitivity to a nominal 2XCO2
forcing is primarily a function of the uncertainties in (1) future atmospheric
aerosol concentrations; both sulfate - type (cooling) and black carbon - type (warming), (2) feedbacks associated with
aerosol effects on the properties of clouds (e.g. will cloud droplets become more reflective?)
Can any of the experts lurking here refer me to any updates to the anthropogenic direct
effect aerosol radiative
forcing digram — Figure 6.8 -(Figure 401) in the TAR?
Greenhouse gases are well mixed and have an
effect globally, other
forcings may be more regional (
aerosols, land use) but they can still have far field affects due to the nature of the atmospheric circulation.
Also, due to the multiplicity of anthropogenic and natural
effects on the climate over this time (i.e.
aerosols, land - use change, greenhouse gases, ozone changes, solar, volcanic etc.) it is difficult to accurately define the
forcings.
As an aside, the radiative
forcing by
aerosols (in both long wave and solar radiation at the tropopause) is not the same as global dimming (which is a solar radiation
effect at the surface) though they are related.
While there is good data over the last century, there were many different changes to planet's radiation balance (greenhouse gases,
aerosols, solar
forcing, volcanoes, land use changes etc.), some of which are difficult to quantify (for instance the indirect
aerosol effects) and whose history is not well known.
Unfortunately they also have to apply figures for
forcing whose values and
effects are not known and have ongoing debate about them, reflective
aerosols, land use, black carbon etc etc..
This is a peer reviewed paper by respected scientists who are saying that
aerosol forcing means that the majority of the warming caused by existing co2 emission has effectively been masked thus far, and that as
aerosols remain in the atmosphere for far shorter a duration of time than co2, we will have already most likely crossed the 2 degree threshold that the G8 politicians have been discussing this week once the cooling
effect of
aerosols dissipate.
But more generally, something I've wondered is: while in the global annual average,
aerosols could be said to partly cancel (net
effect) the warming from anthropogenic greenhouse
forcing, the circulatory, latitudinal, regional, seasonal, diurnal, and internal variability changes would be some combination of reduced changes from reduced AGW + some other changes related to
aerosol forcing.
... and all by itself... woops... a possible isolated, independent temperature rise of 3 - 5 degrees C average world surface temperatures by 2100, not even including any other positive
forcings, because the
forcing is already there waiting for the cancelling
aerosol cooling
effect to be removed...
Inclusion of calculated indirect
effects from
aerosols for instance or if unknown / un-included
forcings are significant this may lead to more model - obs disagreements.
The top panel shows the direct
effects of the individual components, while the second panel attributes various indirect factors (associated with atmospheric chemistry,
aerosol cloud interactions and albedo
effects) and includes a model estimate of the «efficacy» of the
forcing that depends on its spatial distribution.
Given the total irrelevance of volcanic
aerosols during the period in question, the only very modest
effect of fossil fuel emissions and the many inconsistencies governing the data pertaining to solar irradiance, it seems clear that climate science has no meaningful explanation for the considerable warming trend we see in the earlier part of the 20th century — and if that's the case, then there is no reason to assume that the warming we see in the latter part of that century could not also be due to either some as yet unknown natural
force, or perhaps simply random drift.
The details of the physics of different
forcings (i.e. ozone
effects due to solar, snow albedo and cloud
effects due to
aerosols etc.) do vary the feedbacks slightly differently though.
the only thing that scares me with those climate
forcing charts is if policy makers look at the negative
effect from particulates and
aerosols... will this make some want to release more
aerosols to abate the changes?
You can even go one better — if you ignore the fact that there are negative
forcings in the system as well (cheifly
aerosols and land use changes), the
forcing from all the warming
effects is larger still (~ 2.6 W / m2), and so the implied sensitivity even smaller!
First, for changing just CO2
forcing (or CH4, etc, or for a non-GHE
forcing, such as a change in incident solar radiation, volcanic
aerosols, etc.), there will be other GHE radiative «
forcings» (feedbacks, though in the context of measuring their radiative
effect, they can be described as having radiative
forcings of x W / m2 per change in surface T), such as water vapor feedback, LW cloud feedback, and also, because GHE depends on the vertical temperature distribution, the lapse rate feedback (this generally refers to the tropospheric lapse rate, though changes in the position of the tropopause and changes in the stratospheric temperature could also be considered lapse - rate feedbacks for
forcing at TOA;
forcing at the tropopause with stratospheric adjustment takes some of that into account; sensitivity to
forcing at the tropopause with stratospheric adjustment will generally be different from sensitivity to
forcing without stratospheric adjustment and both will generally be different from
forcing at TOA before stratospheric adjustment;
forcing at TOA after stratospehric adjustment is identical to
forcing at the tropopause after stratospheric adjustment).
Some of these
forcings are well known and understood (such as the well - mixed greenhouse gases, or recent volcanic
effects), while others have an uncertain magnitude (solar), and / or uncertain distributions in space and time (
aerosols, tropospheric ozone etc.), or uncertain physics (land use change,
aerosol indirect
effects etc.).
The bottom two panels demonstrate that this weakening is due entirely to the anthropogenic
forcings — greenhouse gas increases offset by sulfate
aerosol effects.
These
forcings are spatially heterogeneous and include the
effect of
aerosols on clouds and associated precipitation [e.g., Rosenfeld et al., 2008], the influence of
aerosol deposition (e.g., black carbon (soot)[Flanner et al. 2007] and reactive nitrogen [Galloway et al., 2004]-RRB-, and the role of changes in land use / land cover [e.g., Takata et al., 2009].
In addition there is still clear evidence in my view for
aerosols having played a significant role in holding back that warming, which acts on top of the
effects of internal variability which play an important role in fluctuations about the
forced changes.
Steve 440 says: «A recent paper by Douglas and Christy seems to claim that either 2C02 would lead to less than 1C or if 2C02 leads to greater than 1C then some
forcing other than
aerosols must be «masking» CO2's
effect....»
Multi-signal detection and attribution analyses, which quantify the contributions of different natural and anthropogenic
forcings to observed changes, show that greenhouse gas
forcing alone during the past half century would likely have resulted in greater than the observed warming if there had not been an offsetting cooling
effect from
aerosol and other
forcings.
While this does not invalidate the
aerosol indirect
effect at all, it underlines the limitations in using satellite observed changes in droplet size to compute the
aerosol indirect
forcing.
Hansen and colleagues have used two alternative approaches to characterise and quantify any missing climate
forcing besides that due to greenhouse gases, solar constant, O3, and
aerosol direct
effect.
Assuming a Northern Hemisphere to Southern Hemisphere ratio of 2:1 for the
aerosol indirect
effect, this would imply a globally - averaged
forcing of -1.5 Wm - 2.