Conclusions: In an analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and intestinal tissues from patients with inflammatory bowel diseases vs controls, we found that
reactivity to intestinal bacteria is a normal property of the human CD4 + T - cell repertoire, and does not necessarily indicate disrupted interactions
between immune cells and the commensal microbiota.
With bitters, digestive enzyme secretions are increased, helping to promote the complete breakdown of nutrients into their absorbable units, preventing gas formation when large molecules are acted upon by bacteria further down the small intestine.2, 11 The complete breakdown of proteins is particularly important, as the cross
reactivity of
immune cells
between undigested protein molecules and intestinal cells plays an important role in the etiology of conditions such as celiac disease.15 Insulin and glucagon secretions are stimulated, helping to stabilize blood sugar levels.3, 11 Many bitters formulations have been traditionally used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes, and it is interesting to point out that many naturally sweet substances are often paired with some bitterness in nature.4, 11 Herbalist Jim McDonald hypothesizes that our cravings for sweetness may mask cravings for bitterness for this reason.4