When added to the multiple logistic regression, an interaction term
between other antisocial behaviors and gender was not found statistically significant, (p = 0.239).
Not exact matches
This interaction
between the 5 - HTTLPR and stress extends to
other phenotypes associated with the serotonin system as well, including post-traumatic stress disorder (Xie et al., 2009),
antisocial behavior (Li and Lee, in press), substance use (Brody et al., 2009a), suicidality (Roy et al., 2007), sleep quality (Brummett et al., 2007) and anxiety sensitivity (Stein et al., 2007).
For example, some have found significant differences
between children with divorced and continuously married parents even after controlling for personality traits such as depression and
antisocial behavior in parents.59
Others have found higher rates of problems among children with single parents, using statistical methods that adjust for unmeasured variables that, in principle, should include parents» personality traits as well as many genetic influences.60 And a few studies have found that the link
between parental divorce and children's problems is similar for adopted and biological children — a finding that can not be explained by genetic transmission.61 Another study, based on a large sample of twins, found that growing up in a single - parent family predicted depression in adulthood even with genetic resemblance controlled statistically.62 Although some degree of selection still may be operating, the weight of the evidence strongly suggests that growing up without two biological parents in the home increases children's risk of a variety of cognitive, emotional, and social problems.
Two studies have identified groups of girls exhibiting chronically high levels of
antisocial behavior across childhood and early adolescence and having an increased risk for continued
antisocial behavior.60 In addition, Odgers and several colleagues found that 7.5 percent of all girls
between the ages of seven and fifteen displayed an early - onset of offending that persisted into adolescence and that this pattern was similar to boys of the same age.61
Other studies suggest that although strongly aggressive
behavior in girls before the age of seven is rare, continuity of offending for such girls may be stronger than that among comparable boys and that such early problem
behavior in girls should be considered a significant warning sign of potential future problems.62
A review of twenty studies on the adult lives of
antisocial adolescent girls found higher mortality rates, a variety of psychiatric problems, dysfunctional and violent relationships, poor educational achievement, and less stable work histories than among non-delinquent girls.23 Chronic problem
behavior during childhood has been linked with alcohol and drug abuse in adulthood, as well as with
other mental health problems and disorders, such as emotional disturbance and depression.24 David Hawkins, Richard Catalano, and Janet Miller have shown a similar link
between conduct disorder among girls and adult substance abuse.25 Terrie Moffitt and several colleagues found that girls diagnosed with conduct disorder were more likely as adults to suffer from a wide variety of problems than girls without such a diagnosis.26 Among the problems were poorer physical health and more symptoms of mental illness, reliance on social assistance, and victimization by, as well as violence toward, partners.
A large number of studies have stressed the relationship
between physical aggression and emotional disorders in young people, compared to
other forms of
antisocial behaviors [24].
Interestingly, such difference
between boys and girls with depressive symptoms specifically concerned physical aggressive
behaviors, but not
other antisocial behaviors.
With regards to
other associated problems influencing the development of
antisocial behavior, the model suggests a reciprocal association
between CD and substance use.
To provide additional support that the gender difference in the relation
between depressive symptoms and physical aggressive
behaviors was specific to physical aggression and not to
antisocial behavior in general, we explored whether the association
between depressive symptoms and
other antisocial behaviors differed by genders.
Other studies identify associations
between an interaction of the long, high - activity allele (MAOA - uVNTR - L) and childhood adversity and
antisocial behavior among females (Sjoberg et al., 2007; Aslund et al., 2011), and aggressive
behavior (Manuck et al., 2000; Beitchman et al., 2004) and violent crime (Tikkanen et al., 2009) among males.