David G. Roskie's compelling study Against the Apocalypse: Responses to Catastrophe in Modem Jewish Culture discusses the cross symbol's use not only in Chagall's painting, but in the literary work of Der Nister, Lamed Shapiro, Sholem Asch, S. Y. Agnon and the poet Uri Zvi Greenberg (Harvard University Press, 1984 [pp. 258 - 310]-RRB- In
literature written
before World War II (and under the influence of
biblical criticism that had emancipated Jesus» image from its doctrinal Christian vesture), these authors used the cross symbol variously; for Asch, the crucified figure in all his Jewishness symbolized universal suffering; for Shapiro and Agnon, on the other hand, the cross remained an emblem of violence and a reminder of Christian enmity against Jews.