However, heavy smokers tend to have more adverse cardiovascular risk factors than light smokers (such as higher
body mass index and
central adiposity and poorer diet).858687 Therefore, light smokers should have characteristics that are more protective against cardiovascular disease, compared with heavier smokers.
As an example, numerous reports say that
central adiposity (the deposition of
central body fat, around your belly region) causes huge GH decline.
Regarding the child, the importance of the intrauterine and early postnatal environments for metabolic programming and modifications of the epigenome is increasingly recognised, 12 — 14 particularly for metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes.15 Thus, GDM is related to macrosomia at birth (> 4 kg), to excess
body fat and (
central) obesity and to insulin secretion in infants and children, the obesity being in part mediated by maternal
body mass index (BMI) or birth weight.16 — 23 Intrauterine exposure to GDM also doubles the risk for subsequent type 2 diabetes in offspring compared with offspring of mothers with a high genetic predisposition for type 2 diabetes, but with normal glucose tolerance during the index pregnancy.24 Maternal prepregnancy overweight and excessive gestational weight gain also predict high birth weight and
adiposity during infancy.12 25 This is highly relevant, as up to 60 % — 70 % of women with GDM are overweight or obese before pregnancy.26 Finally, maternal lifestyle behaviour such as a high fat diet or lack of physical activity during pregnancy can influence offspring
adiposity independent of maternal obesity.12 27