Shoken Miyama, director of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, described how researchers and funding agencies in the United States, Japan, and Europe had negotiated «different cultures,
different budgetary processes, and different time schedules» to get ALMA heading toward the start of scientific operations «with no major problems.»
OMB's role in the budget
process does not end when Congress passes and the President signs the annual appropriations bills (or, in more recent years, the continuing resolutions to provide funding for a limited period of time after the fiscal year until the appropriations bills are agreed upon).195 OMB is intimately involved in budget execution — the way federal agencies carry out their work under the
budgetary authority they have been granted.196 OMB affects budget execution through two
different levers: the formal specification lever, through which it «apportions» and otherwise defines how agencies spend the funds Congress has appropriated, and the informal monitoring lever, through which it oversees agencies» implementation of their programs.