The semi-direct
effect has been simulated with GCMs and high - resolution cloud - resolving
models, since it is implicitly accounted for
whenever absorbing aerosols coupled to the radiation scheme are included (Hansen et al., 1997; Lohmann and Feichter, 2001; Jacobson, 2002; Menon et al., 2002b; Penner et al., 2003; Cook and Highwood, 2004; Hansen et al., 2005).