Despite these gains, the rate of progress has
varied among these racial /
ethnic groups and
differences by race / ethnicity persist in terms of increases in attainment and progress on key indicators of educational performance.
For example, compared to older mothers, teen mothers display lower levels of verbal stimulation and involvement, higher levels of intrusiveness, and maternal speech that is less
varied and complex.47, 48 Mothers with fewer years of education read to their children less frequently25, 49 and demonstrate less sophisticated language and literacy skills themselves, 50 which affects the quantity and quality of their verbal interactions with their children.2 Parental education, in turn, relates to household income: poverty and persistent poverty are strongly associated with less stimulating home environments, 51 and parents living in poverty have children who are at risk for cognitive, academic, and social - emotional difficulties.52, 53 Finally, Hispanic and African American mothers are, on average, less likely to read to their children than White, non-Hispanic mothers; 54 and Spanish - speaking Hispanic families have fewer children's books available in the home as compared to their non-Hispanic counterparts.25 These racial and
ethnic findings are likely explained by
differences in family resources across groups, as minority status is often associated with various social - demographic risks.