The objectives of the present study were (a) to investigate whether clique isolation from age 11 to 13 years is a social risk factor
for subsequent depressive symptoms in early adolescence; (b) to test the potential role of loneliness and perceived social acceptance as cognitive and emotional constructs underlying the link between clique isolation and depressive symptoms; and (c) to explore possible sex differences in the association between clique isolation and depressive symptoms.
To check
for reverse causation, that
depressive symptoms may affect
subsequent sugar intake from sweet food / beverages, linear regression models of 5 - year change and multinomial logistic regression
for change groups were fitted
for each cycle, from phases 3 to 5, 5 to 7 and 7 to 9, with CMD at phases 3, 5, 7 respectively, and
for change from phase 7 to 9 with depression at phase 7.
One evaluation conducted in Queensland, Australia, reported moderate reductions in
depressive symptoms for mothers in the intervention group at the six - week follow - up.89 A
subsequent follow - up, however, suggested that these benefits were not long lasting, as the depression effects had diminished by one year.90 Similarly, Healthy Families San Diego identified reductions in depression
symptoms among program mothers during the first two years, but these effects, too, had diminished by year three.91 In Healthy Families New York, mothers at one site (that was supervised by a clinical psychologist) had lower rates of depression at one year (23 percent treatment vs. 38 percent controls).92 The Infant Health and Development program also demonstrated decreases in
depressive symptoms after one year of home visiting, as well as at the conclusion of the program at three years.93 Among Early Head Start families, maternal
depressive symptoms remained stable
for the program group during the study and immediately after it ended, but decreased just before their children entered kindergarten.94 No program effects were found
for maternal depression in the Nurse - Family Partnership, Hawaii Healthy Start, Healthy Families Alaska, or Early Start programs.
In considering these results alongside the findings of Pieters et al. (2015), it is possible that a developmental progression occurs whereby sleep problems confer risk
for depressive symptoms in early - to - mid adolescence whereas the presence of
depressive symptoms in late adolescence impacts
subsequent sleep.