Yet many stakeholders are concerned that value - added methodology does not live up to its billing and that teacher effects
from value added measures will be sensitive to which students a teacher teaches.
Not exact matches
Returns
from patented intellectual property (IP), such as software, are an increasing part of
value added in electronic products, and these are hard to
measure.
Alpha is a risk - adjusted
measure of the
value that a portfolio manager
adds to or subtracts
from a fund's return.
Measuring trade in gross terms, rather than examining the
value -
add inputs
from countries along the supply chain, fails to tell us the whole story of where commodities actually came
from and where they went.
He
adds himself to the world as the vision of ideal possibility,
from which every new occasion takes its rise, thereby ensuring a
measure of order and
value in a situation that could otherwise be only chaotic and indeed could achieve no actuality at all.
Throughout 2008, a number of fiscal
measures — including a # 145 tax cut for basic rate (below # 34,800 pa earnings) tax payers, a temporary 2.5 % cut in
Value Added Tax (VAT), # 3 billion worth of spending brought forward
from 2010 and a # 20 billion Small Enterprise Loan Guarantee Scheme — were introduced.
The Chancellor Alistair Darling cut
value added tax
from 17.5 per cent to 15 per cent in 2008 as part of a package of
measures aimed at stimulating spending to fight the recession.
And, in fact, the differences were statistically indistinguishable
from what one would have predicted based on the
value -
added measures.
First, we calculate a
value -
added measure of effectiveness that combines data
from all available years and both subjects (averaging math and reading).
Pages of Download Grade 2 Practice Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Measurement Height 12 - 15 - Place
Value 16 - 20 - Ordinal Numbers 21 - 25 - Smallest / Largest Number in a set of numbers 26 - 29 - Greater than 30 - 33 - Less than 34 - 36 - Greater than / Less than 37 - 39 - Add or subtract write the sign in the blank 40 - 45 - Adding using place value (example: 4 + 13 + 5) 46 - 51 - Adding with words - Example - what is 150 more than 200 52 - 55 - Skip Counting 56 - 59 - Skip Counting - Missing Numbers on a Number line 60 - 65 - Reading Graphs 65 - 71 - Solving Word Problems 72 - 76 - Time 77 - 83 - Coin Identification and Coin counting 84 - 88 - Counting Dollars and coins 89 - 92 - Geometry 93 - 96 - Fractions 97 - 115 - Answer Keys 116 - 118 - Terms of Use and Credits Pages of Download Grade 3 Practice Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Measurement Height 12 - 19 - Place Value 20 - 24 - Find the smallest / largest number from a set of numbers 25 - 28 - Number Words 29 - 32 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 33 - 37 - Counting dollars and coins 38 - 48 - Reading thermometers - temperature 49 - 53 - Reading graphs 54 - 57 - Reading Calendars 58 - 62 - Numerators and Denominators 63 - 67 - Fraction Circles 68 - 72 - Fractions of a solid 73 - 78 - Word Problems 79 - 83 - Data Tables 84 - 88 - Multi-Step Word Problems 89 - 92 - Rounding to the nearest ten 93 - 96 - Rounding to the nearest hundred 97 - 100 - Rounding word problems 101 - 103 - Probability 104 - 107 - Geometry - identifying shapes 108 - 110 - Height of a triangle 111 - 113 - Angles identifying right, acute, and obtuse 114 - 117 - Symmetry and Angles 118 - 121 - Perimeter 122 - 125 - Area 126 - 129 - Elapsed Time 130 - 155 - Answer Keys 156 - 158 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 4 practice sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Patterns 12 - 15 - Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 16 - 26 - Reading Temperature 27 - 31 - Reading Graphs 32 - 36 - Coordinate Graphs 37 - 41 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 42 - 46 - Place Value 47 - 50 - Number Words 51 - 55 - Powers of 10 56 - 60 - Adding using Place Value 61 - 70 - Fractions 71 - 75 - Fraction Word Problems 76 - 80 - Convert Fractions to Decimals 81 - 85 - Convert Decimals to Fractions 86 - 90 - Height of a figure 91 - 95 - Missing Number in an equation 96 - 100 - Balancing Equations 101 - 105 - Data Tables - ordering numbers 106 - 110 - Data Table Addition 111 - 115 - Data Table Time 116 - 120 - Data Table Subtraction 121 - 125 - Estimation Word Problems 126 - 130 - Ratio Word Problems 131 - 134 - Probability 135 - 140 - Spinner Probability 141 - 145 - Arrays 146 - 173 - Answer Keys 174 - 177 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 5 Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 7 - Units of Measure 8 - 12 - Reading Graphs 13 - 17 - Number Words 18 - 22 - Place Value 23 - 27 - Decimal Place Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms o
Value 16 - 20 - Ordinal Numbers 21 - 25 - Smallest / Largest Number in a set of numbers 26 - 29 - Greater than 30 - 33 - Less than 34 - 36 - Greater than / Less than 37 - 39 -
Add or subtract write the sign in the blank 40 - 45 -
Adding using place
value (example: 4 + 13 + 5) 46 - 51 - Adding with words - Example - what is 150 more than 200 52 - 55 - Skip Counting 56 - 59 - Skip Counting - Missing Numbers on a Number line 60 - 65 - Reading Graphs 65 - 71 - Solving Word Problems 72 - 76 - Time 77 - 83 - Coin Identification and Coin counting 84 - 88 - Counting Dollars and coins 89 - 92 - Geometry 93 - 96 - Fractions 97 - 115 - Answer Keys 116 - 118 - Terms of Use and Credits Pages of Download Grade 3 Practice Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Measurement Height 12 - 19 - Place Value 20 - 24 - Find the smallest / largest number from a set of numbers 25 - 28 - Number Words 29 - 32 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 33 - 37 - Counting dollars and coins 38 - 48 - Reading thermometers - temperature 49 - 53 - Reading graphs 54 - 57 - Reading Calendars 58 - 62 - Numerators and Denominators 63 - 67 - Fraction Circles 68 - 72 - Fractions of a solid 73 - 78 - Word Problems 79 - 83 - Data Tables 84 - 88 - Multi-Step Word Problems 89 - 92 - Rounding to the nearest ten 93 - 96 - Rounding to the nearest hundred 97 - 100 - Rounding word problems 101 - 103 - Probability 104 - 107 - Geometry - identifying shapes 108 - 110 - Height of a triangle 111 - 113 - Angles identifying right, acute, and obtuse 114 - 117 - Symmetry and Angles 118 - 121 - Perimeter 122 - 125 - Area 126 - 129 - Elapsed Time 130 - 155 - Answer Keys 156 - 158 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 4 practice sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Patterns 12 - 15 - Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 16 - 26 - Reading Temperature 27 - 31 - Reading Graphs 32 - 36 - Coordinate Graphs 37 - 41 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 42 - 46 - Place Value 47 - 50 - Number Words 51 - 55 - Powers of 10 56 - 60 - Adding using Place Value 61 - 70 - Fractions 71 - 75 - Fraction Word Problems 76 - 80 - Convert Fractions to Decimals 81 - 85 - Convert Decimals to Fractions 86 - 90 - Height of a figure 91 - 95 - Missing Number in an equation 96 - 100 - Balancing Equations 101 - 105 - Data Tables - ordering numbers 106 - 110 - Data Table Addition 111 - 115 - Data Table Time 116 - 120 - Data Table Subtraction 121 - 125 - Estimation Word Problems 126 - 130 - Ratio Word Problems 131 - 134 - Probability 135 - 140 - Spinner Probability 141 - 145 - Arrays 146 - 173 - Answer Keys 174 - 177 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 5 Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 7 - Units of Measure 8 - 12 - Reading Graphs 13 - 17 - Number Words 18 - 22 - Place Value 23 - 27 - Decimal Place Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms o
value (example: 4 + 13 + 5) 46 - 51 -
Adding with words - Example - what is 150 more than 200 52 - 55 - Skip Counting 56 - 59 - Skip Counting - Missing Numbers on a Number line 60 - 65 - Reading Graphs 65 - 71 - Solving Word Problems 72 - 76 - Time 77 - 83 - Coin Identification and Coin counting 84 - 88 - Counting Dollars and coins 89 - 92 - Geometry 93 - 96 - Fractions 97 - 115 - Answer Keys 116 - 118 - Terms of Use and Credits Pages of Download Grade 3 Practice Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Measurement Height 12 - 19 - Place
Value 20 - 24 - Find the smallest / largest number from a set of numbers 25 - 28 - Number Words 29 - 32 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 33 - 37 - Counting dollars and coins 38 - 48 - Reading thermometers - temperature 49 - 53 - Reading graphs 54 - 57 - Reading Calendars 58 - 62 - Numerators and Denominators 63 - 67 - Fraction Circles 68 - 72 - Fractions of a solid 73 - 78 - Word Problems 79 - 83 - Data Tables 84 - 88 - Multi-Step Word Problems 89 - 92 - Rounding to the nearest ten 93 - 96 - Rounding to the nearest hundred 97 - 100 - Rounding word problems 101 - 103 - Probability 104 - 107 - Geometry - identifying shapes 108 - 110 - Height of a triangle 111 - 113 - Angles identifying right, acute, and obtuse 114 - 117 - Symmetry and Angles 118 - 121 - Perimeter 122 - 125 - Area 126 - 129 - Elapsed Time 130 - 155 - Answer Keys 156 - 158 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 4 practice sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Patterns 12 - 15 - Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 16 - 26 - Reading Temperature 27 - 31 - Reading Graphs 32 - 36 - Coordinate Graphs 37 - 41 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 42 - 46 - Place Value 47 - 50 - Number Words 51 - 55 - Powers of 10 56 - 60 - Adding using Place Value 61 - 70 - Fractions 71 - 75 - Fraction Word Problems 76 - 80 - Convert Fractions to Decimals 81 - 85 - Convert Decimals to Fractions 86 - 90 - Height of a figure 91 - 95 - Missing Number in an equation 96 - 100 - Balancing Equations 101 - 105 - Data Tables - ordering numbers 106 - 110 - Data Table Addition 111 - 115 - Data Table Time 116 - 120 - Data Table Subtraction 121 - 125 - Estimation Word Problems 126 - 130 - Ratio Word Problems 131 - 134 - Probability 135 - 140 - Spinner Probability 141 - 145 - Arrays 146 - 173 - Answer Keys 174 - 177 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 5 Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 7 - Units of Measure 8 - 12 - Reading Graphs 13 - 17 - Number Words 18 - 22 - Place Value 23 - 27 - Decimal Place Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms o
Value 20 - 24 - Find the smallest / largest number
from a set of numbers 25 - 28 - Number Words 29 - 32 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 33 - 37 - Counting dollars and coins 38 - 48 - Reading thermometers - temperature 49 - 53 - Reading graphs 54 - 57 - Reading Calendars 58 - 62 - Numerators and Denominators 63 - 67 - Fraction Circles 68 - 72 - Fractions of a solid 73 - 78 - Word Problems 79 - 83 - Data Tables 84 - 88 - Multi-Step Word Problems 89 - 92 - Rounding to the nearest ten 93 - 96 - Rounding to the nearest hundred 97 - 100 - Rounding word problems 101 - 103 - Probability 104 - 107 - Geometry - identifying shapes 108 - 110 - Height of a triangle 111 - 113 - Angles identifying right, acute, and obtuse 114 - 117 - Symmetry and Angles 118 - 121 - Perimeter 122 - 125 - Area 126 - 129 - Elapsed Time 130 - 155 - Answer Keys 156 - 158 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 4 practice sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 6 - Measurement Length 7 - 11 - Patterns 12 - 15 - Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 16 - 26 - Reading Temperature 27 - 31 - Reading Graphs 32 - 36 - Coordinate Graphs 37 - 41 - Skip Counting - complete the sequence 42 - 46 - Place
Value 47 - 50 - Number Words 51 - 55 - Powers of 10 56 - 60 - Adding using Place Value 61 - 70 - Fractions 71 - 75 - Fraction Word Problems 76 - 80 - Convert Fractions to Decimals 81 - 85 - Convert Decimals to Fractions 86 - 90 - Height of a figure 91 - 95 - Missing Number in an equation 96 - 100 - Balancing Equations 101 - 105 - Data Tables - ordering numbers 106 - 110 - Data Table Addition 111 - 115 - Data Table Time 116 - 120 - Data Table Subtraction 121 - 125 - Estimation Word Problems 126 - 130 - Ratio Word Problems 131 - 134 - Probability 135 - 140 - Spinner Probability 141 - 145 - Arrays 146 - 173 - Answer Keys 174 - 177 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 5 Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 7 - Units of Measure 8 - 12 - Reading Graphs 13 - 17 - Number Words 18 - 22 - Place Value 23 - 27 - Decimal Place Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms o
Value 47 - 50 - Number Words 51 - 55 - Powers of 10 56 - 60 -
Adding using Place
Value 61 - 70 - Fractions 71 - 75 - Fraction Word Problems 76 - 80 - Convert Fractions to Decimals 81 - 85 - Convert Decimals to Fractions 86 - 90 - Height of a figure 91 - 95 - Missing Number in an equation 96 - 100 - Balancing Equations 101 - 105 - Data Tables - ordering numbers 106 - 110 - Data Table Addition 111 - 115 - Data Table Time 116 - 120 - Data Table Subtraction 121 - 125 - Estimation Word Problems 126 - 130 - Ratio Word Problems 131 - 134 - Probability 135 - 140 - Spinner Probability 141 - 145 - Arrays 146 - 173 - Answer Keys 174 - 177 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 5 Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 7 - Units of Measure 8 - 12 - Reading Graphs 13 - 17 - Number Words 18 - 22 - Place Value 23 - 27 - Decimal Place Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms o
Value 61 - 70 - Fractions 71 - 75 - Fraction Word Problems 76 - 80 - Convert Fractions to Decimals 81 - 85 - Convert Decimals to Fractions 86 - 90 - Height of a figure 91 - 95 - Missing Number in an equation 96 - 100 - Balancing Equations 101 - 105 - Data Tables - ordering numbers 106 - 110 - Data Table Addition 111 - 115 - Data Table Time 116 - 120 - Data Table Subtraction 121 - 125 - Estimation Word Problems 126 - 130 - Ratio Word Problems 131 - 134 - Probability 135 - 140 - Spinner Probability 141 - 145 - Arrays 146 - 173 - Answer Keys 174 - 177 - Credits and Terms of Use Pages of Download Grade 5 Sheets: 1 - Cover 2 - For the Teacher 3 - 7 - Units of
Measure 8 - 12 - Reading Graphs 13 - 17 - Number Words 18 - 22 - Place
Value 23 - 27 - Decimal Place Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms o
Value 23 - 27 - Decimal Place
Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms o
Value 28 - 32 - Rounding Numbers 33 - 37 - Complete the sequence, skip counting 38 - 42 - Solving Equations 43 - 47 - Variable Equations 48 - 52 - Simplify Expressions 53 - 57 - Finding the Mean 58 - 62 - Mean, Median, Mode 63 - 67 - Greatest Common Factor 68 - 72 - Fractions 73 - 77 - Comparing a set of Fractions 78 - 83 - Comparing Multiple Fractions 84 - 93 - Fraction Word Problems 94 - 98 - Estimating / Estimation Word Problems 99 - 103 - Possible Outcome Problems 104 - 108 - Distance Word Problems 109 - 113 - Division Word Problems 114 - 118 - Ratio Word Problems 119 - 124 - Coordinate Graphs 125 - 130 - Perimeter 131 - 135 - Area 136 - 145 Elapsed Time Clocks and Watches 146 - 171 - Answer Keys 172 - 175 - Credits and Terms of Use
(To generate the weights, we regressed a teacher's average student - achievement gain in one class against the three different
measures from another class, resulting in weights of.758,.200, and.042 on
value -
added, student survey, and classroom observation, respectively).
We excluded kindergarten and first - grade teachers because earlier achievement exams were not available for their students; this prevented us
from developing a «
value -
added»
measure of student learning.
The May 23 conference at the Urban Institute, a think tank based here in the nation's capital, examined the policy implications for
value -
added statistical designs, which typically
measure students» learning gains
from one year to the next.
States and districts should have been focusing on the real end goal — differentiating the best teachers
from those who are merely satisfactory and those who continue to struggle — a task that would not have required complicated mathematical formulas designed to
measure each teacher's «
value -
added» to student achievement.
We
measured value -
added with the average change in combined reading and math scores for a school's students between the end of 3rd grade and the end of 4th grade; we
measured cross-cohort changes with the change in 4th grade scores
from one year to the next.
Improvements can be
measured in two basic ways: the improvement in performance for a given group of students
from one year to the next (known as a
value -
added approach), or the improvement in performance across different groups of students (which we will refer to as cross-cohort changes).
From teacher evaluation systems to
value -
added modeling to the recent Vergara decision in California, reformers have increasingly focused on selecting,
measuring, developing, evaluating, and firing teachers as the key to educational improvement.
Misunderstanding the Gates Foundation's
Measures of Effective Teaching Project Education Next, January 10, 2013 «MET argues for a more balanced set of weights among
value added, classroom observations, and feedback
from student surveys on other grounds.
The
value -
added measures are designed to provide estimates of the independent effect of the teacher on the growth in a student's learning and to separate this
from other influences on achievement such as families, peers, and neighborhoods.
These and other findings with respect to the correlates of teacher effectiveness are obtained
from estimations using
value -
added models that control for student characteristics as well as school and (where appropriate teacher) fixed effects in order to
measure teacher effectiveness in reading and math for Florida students in fourth through eighth grades for eight school years, 2001 - 2002 through 2008 - 2009.
They claim that
value -
added studies that
measure gains
from one point in time to the next fail to account for the fact that «two students can have pretest scores and similar schooling conditions during a grade and still emerge with different posttest scores influenced by different earlier schooling conditions.»
From among the array of growth
measures, I recommend true
value -
added models or student growth percentiles (though I prefer
value -
added models for reasons described here).
The question should instead be, «If scales
from a testing regime are used within a
value -
added process, is there evidence that
measures of student progress are influenced by the distribution of student achievement levels in schools or classrooms because of a lack of equal - interval scales?»
Nonetheless, we all want our kids to have at least a few excellent teachers along the way, so it's tempting to buy into hype about
value -
added measures (VAM) as a way to separate the excellent
from the horrifying, or least the better
from the worse.
It is based on a comparison of two different
value -
added scores for teachers: one derived
from the regular state assessment (which varies by participating district) and the other
from an alternative assessment that is specifically designed to
measure students» depth of higher - order conceptual understanding in each subject.
Join Teach Plus on Thursday, November 17,
from 5 - 7:30 pm for an important conversation on the questions surrounding student growth
measures with experts Noah Bookman, LAUSD Program and Policy Development Advisor, Dr. Rob Meyer, research professor and Director of the
Value -
Added Research Center at the University of Wisconsin, and Chris Bertelli, Executive Director at The College - Ready Promise.
This approach is different
from using
value -
added measures of standardized tests as a significant component in an evaluation and separates the San Jose system
from one favored by reform groups like StudentsFirst.
I've already seen at least one post
from a teacher of «gifted» students, complaining that she now has a negative
value added measure because her students started the year with very high test scores.
The most controversial of them include what is known as
value -
added models1 that use data
from standardized tests of students as part of the overall
measure of the effect that a teacher has on student achievement.
Two academic researchers
from the University of Southern California and the University of Pennsylvania looked at these
value -
added measures in six districts around the nation and found that there was weak to zero relationship between these new numbers and the content or quality of the teacher's instruction.
But as with any system of ranking or scoring,
value -
added measures are far
from perfect; they are subject to bias, distortion and error.
[14] These results do not mean that
value -
added measures can't be used productively as incentives; evidence
from Kenya and India, at least, suggest that they can.
[22] To put this in perspective, one study finds that only 28 to 50 percent of teachers who were ranked in the top fifth on
value -
added measures one year were still ranked in the top fifth in the subsequent year, and 4 to 15 percent of teachers switched
from the top fifth to the bottom fifth.
One major vendor of
value -
added measures (i.e., SAS as in SAS - EVAAS) long has held that the tests need only to have 1) sufficient «stretch» in the scales «to ensure that progress could be
measured for low - and high achieving students», 2) that «the test is highly related to the academic standards,» and 3) «the scales are sufficiently reliable
from one year to the next» (see, for example, here).
Other differences come
from the tests on which the
value -
added measures are based; because test scores are not perfectly accurate
measures of student knowledge, it follows that they are not perfectly accurate gauges of teacher performance.
Secondary grades differ
from elementary grades in ways that are meaningful for the validity and reliability of
value -
added measures for secondary teachers.
In summary,
value -
added measures vary for the same teacher
from year to year, subject to subject, and student group to student group.
Likewise, though, «[a] number of states... have been moving away
from [said] student growth [and
value -
added]
measures in [teacher] evaluations,» said a friend, colleague, co-editor, and occasional writer on this blog (see, for example, here and here) Kimberly Kappler Hewitt (University of North Carolina at Greensboro).
Thus,
value -
added measures of improvement — particularly those based only on data
from the beginning and end of a single year — will be very imprecise.
We can think of
value -
added estimates as
measuring three components: (1) true teaching effectiveness that persists across years; (2) true effectiveness that varies
from year to year; and (3) measurement error.
Accordingly, and also per the research, this is not getting much better in that, as per the authors of this article as well as many other scholars, (1) «the variance in
value -
added scores that can be attributed to teacher performance rarely exceeds 10 percent; (2) in many ways «gross» measurement errors that in many ways come, first,
from the tests being used to calculate
value -
added; (3) the restricted ranges in teacher effectiveness scores also given these test scores and their limited stretch, and depth, and instructional insensitivity — this was also at the heart of a recent post whereas in what demonstrated that «the entire range
from the 15th percentile of effectiveness to the 85th percentile of [teacher] effectiveness [using the EVAAS] cover [ed] approximately 3.5 raw score points [given the tests used to
measure value -
added];» (4) context or student, family, school, and community background effects that simply can not be controlled for, or factored out; (5) especially at the classroom / teacher level when students are not randomly assigned to classrooms (and teachers assigned to teach those classrooms)... although this will likely never happen for the sake of improving the sophistication and rigor of the
value -
added model over students» «best interests.»
It is important to note, however, that even if the conclusions
from these studies are right, they provide evidence about whether
value -
added measures are valid on the average across large numbers of teachers.
The largest study of performance incentives based on
value -
added measures comes
from a Nashville, Tennessee study that randomly assigned middle - school math teachers (who volunteered for the study) to be eligible for performance - based pay or not.
[4] The adequacy of the adjustments across schools in
value -
added measures, which would allow the comparison of teachers in different schools, is less clear because schools can contribute to student learning in ways apart
from the contribution of individual teachers and because students sort into schools in ways that
value -
added measures may not adjust for well.
The well - known
Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) project funded by the Gates Foundation reports results
from experiments that also address the validity of
value -
added at the middle and high school levels.
The null results
from most studies contrast with some recent evidence suggesting that programs that combine
value -
added with other
measures of performance, or which use only other
measures, can lead to improvement.
In particular, there is growing agreement that random error is the biggest problem — this is mostly what makes
value -
added measures bounce around so much
from year to year.
It is clear
from the research so far that
value -
added measures will never be completely stable across time, topics, or student groups, nor would we necessarily want them to be because true teacher effectiveness likely varies across these dimensions.
This means that, even setting aside other issues with the
measures, current standard
value -
added measures for teachers who concentrate their work in particular tracks in middle and high schools will suffer
from validity concerns.
Many also are likely to be interested in outcomes other than those
measured by
value -
added, such as the number of teachers, or types of teachers that graduate
from different institutions.