After controlling for demographic characteristics and educational background, fellowships were associated with a 2.5 percentage point increase in the probability of R01 award (P <.001), traineeships with
an increased award probability of 2.2 percentage points (P <.001), and career development awards with
an increased award probability of 4.8 percentage points (P <.001) relative to R01 applicants who had no previous participation in these NIH training programs.