In particular, I examine 1) whether a child was below grade for age while still
of school age (a proxy for grade retention); 2) three
indicators of adult educational attainment (
high school dropout,
high school degree only, and some college); 3) adult wage and
salary earnings and
indicators of employment and receipt
of public assistance income; and 4) an
indicator for residence in institutionalized group quarters, a widely used proxy for incarceration.