In 2012, for example, Willerslev's lab published an analysis of proteins, which are generally longer lived postmortem than genetic material, of 43,000 - year - old woolly mammoth bones.16 And last year, Willerslev, Orlando, and colleagues published a genome - wide nucleosome
map and survey of
cytosine methylation levels in the DNA they pulled from the 4,000 - year - old hair shafts of a Paleo - Eskimo, effectively launching the field of ancient epigenetics.17 Also last year, Pääbo's group at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology published the first full DNA methylation
maps of the Neanderthal and Denisovan genomes.18 «For the first time we'll be able to address what is the role of epigenomics and epigenetics in evolution,» Willerslev says.
But to a chemist such as Benner, of the Florida - based Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution, the
map of life actually is an alphabet with four letters, each representing a chemical base: adenine (represented by the letter A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T).