For children living in poverty, although parenting has been shown to be a
consistent predictor of later child functioning, other factors in the child's social environment have been found to contribute independent variance to children's adjustment, effects that are not accounted for by parenting.15 Such factors include parental age, well - being, history of antisocial behaviour, social support within and outside the family, and beginning around age three to four in Canada's
most impoverished communities, neighbourhood quality.16