And for reasons that are not clear, positively charged bolts struck less frequently when the levels of silicon dioxide and
other aerosols in the air were high.
Penner et al. (1996) reported a range of forcing from -2.5 to -4.5 Wm - 2 (not included in Table 6.6), which is probably an overestimate because of neglect
of other aerosol types such as dust and sea salt and underestimated natural emissions of organic aerosols.
An interesting low - budget entry in the post-Jaws animals - run - amok genre (which also owes more than a little to Hitchcock's The Birds), this noisy, violent thriller features the prophetic premise of a widening gap in the ozone layer (thanks to human indulgences in hairspray and
other aerosol products) which unleashes brain - frying radiation and causes assorted woodland creatures to go for the throats of unsuspecting Sierra backpackers.
According to the report, sulfate and
other aerosols reflect sunlight and reduce the amount of solar energy hitting Earth's surface by as much as 15 %.
But soot and
other aerosol particles are short - lived in the atmosphere, unlike greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, and their climate effects are very difficult to quantify.
Of course, such computer models are only as good as the entered data, so additional information from ongoing observation campaigns — whether that is the DoE's Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program or the NSF's National Ecological Observatory Network — will be needed to provide a fuller understanding of how soot and
other aerosols impact the global climate as well as the role of clouds.
Spikes in temperature are caused by major volcanic events, which push sulfur dioxide and
other aerosols into the lower stratosphere.
Differences in how a model represents space and time scales, emission rates, meteorology, gas - phase chemistry, and
other aerosol processes all affect model predictions.
The development of the beta version of
other Aerosol Modeling Testbed was sponsored by PNNL's Laboratory Directed Research and Development program through the Aerosol Climate Initiative.
Aerosols are more spatially hetrogeneous than GHGs, but the largest component (sulphates) is large enough to effect the global temperature —
other aerosols do also, but they have smaller effects.
MacDonald's atlas shows 12
other aerosol clouds all being downwind from desert regions and likely natural.
The IPCC BC estimate refers to fossil fuel and biofuel sources only, with other BC sources included in
other aerosol categories, whereas the Bond et al. estimate includes all sources.
Bauer, S.E., D. Koch, N. Unger, S.M. Metzger, D.T. Shindell, and D.G. Streets, 2007: Nitrate aerosols today and in 2030: Importance relative to
other aerosol species and tropospheric ozone.
In this case the computed forcings incorporate the effects of
other aerosol types which have a similar spatial distribution to sulphate aerosols, such as nitrate aerosols or carbonaceous aerosols from fossil fuel combustion.
In September 1974, a Harvard atmospheric scientist told a New York Times journalist that hairspray and
other aerosol products were damaging the Earth's ozone layer.
Like a rainbow, a glory is essentially a highly distorted image of the Sun reflected off water droplets or
other aerosols in the atmosphere.
While methane and black carbon contribute to warming,
other aerosols, like those formed from sulphur dioxide (released in volcanic emissions and from coal - fired power plants, for example), have a cooling effect.
Forster's chapter also reports on another important uncertainty: the cooling effect of smoke and
other aerosols, which some argued almost negated the warming effect of greenhouse gases in the short term.
In the 1970s and 1980s, chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs were readily used in coolants for refrigeration systems and everyday propellants like hair sprays or
other aerosols.
Other aerosols can bring about temporary atmospheric cooling, mainly by seeding clouds that linger in the atmosphere longer than they normally would, or by scattering light.
Never spray any deodorizers, pesticides or
any other aerosols near any caged birds.
For example, smoking is unhealthy enough for people, but it's even worse for birds, whose airways actually inhale and exhale simultaneously with every breath and who are extremely sensitive to smoke and
other aerosols.
But at that time we were producing a lot of sulphates and
other aerosols that helped cool the planet but that is also complimented by natural variability.
Other forcings (O3, solar,
other aerosols) may play a role but are currently extremely poorly constrained (i.e. not at all).
As the aerosol contains a large fraction of soot, this too points to more absorption, outweighing the combined direct and indirect reflective effects of sulphate and
other aerosols.
It is also likely that
other aerosols, dust from the dust bowl and accelerated manufacturing to build up for war, could have been significant.
(9) The computer models were so simplified, and the data on smoke and
other aerosols were still so poor, that the scientists could say nothing for certain.
There are other pieces to this: the ozone layer, the carbon soot,
other aerosols, the ice shielding parts of the world, the ocean circulation — all of which we shall look at later.