A follow - up of the same subjects nine years later found that although the average length of criminal careers had increased (to 5.6 years for females and 9.7 years for males), careers remained significantly shorter for females than for males.48 A study that examined the criminal careers of the sisters and wives of life - course -
persistent male offenders found that the women's careers averaged eight years, compared with ten years for the males.
Ironically, however, these shorter careers do considerable damage in the offender's adulthood, including persistent behavioral and emotional problems that are often more detrimental than those encountered by
persistent male offenders.
Notwithstanding these gender - specific risk and protective factors, in most cases, the same factors — ADHD, negative temperament, impulsivity, compromised intelligence — predict antisocial behavior in both
males and females, as suggested by the substantial overlap shown in figure 4.99 Although some analysts have argued the need to concentrate on the commonalities in predictors of
male and female offending, it is also important to note the areas in which risk factors differ by gender.100 Even if the differences between
male and female
offenders are confined to only a few key areas, the differences in these areas — for example, sensitivity to victimization, timing of onset of
persistent offending, prevalence of mental health problems — can be substantial and can profoundly influence the effectiveness of risk assessments and treatment programs.