Data from modern ice stream beds are difficult to obtain, but where ice advanced onto continental
shelves during glacial periods, extensive areas of the former bed can be imaged using modern swath sonar tools.
Arctic climatic extremes include 25 °C hyperthermal
periods during the Paleocene - Eocene (56 — 46 million years ago, Ma), Quaternary
glacial periods when thick ice
shelves and sea ice cover rendered the Arctic Ocean nearly uninhabitable, seasonally sea - ice - free interglacials and abrupt climate reversals.