Not exact matches
The influence of fathers» socioeconomic status and paternity leave
on breastfeeding duration: a population - based cohort
study.
On the evidence side, I know that the evidence primarily comes from observational
studies, and there are methodological issues with measuring dose and
duration of
breastfeeding particularly after the introduction of complementary foods, however the evidence is fairly consistent in showing a reduction in gastrointestinal, respiratory and ear infections (see «Breastfeeding and maternal and infant outcomes in developed countries» http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubm
breastfeeding particularly after the introduction of complementary foods, however the evidence is fairly consistent in showing a reduction in gastrointestinal, respiratory and ear infections (see «
Breastfeeding and maternal and infant outcomes in developed countries» http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubm
Breastfeeding and maternal and infant outcomes in developed countries» http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17764214).
In fact, in
studies and interviews women tend to rate social support as more important than professional support
on the
duration of their
breastfeeding experience 5.
Our use of observational data reflects the existing literature
on lactation and maternal health; apart from a single randomized trial examining the effect of exclusive lactation
duration on maternal weight loss, 48 there are no published
studies of maternal health outcomes in randomized trials of
breastfeeding.
Most
studies have revealed protective effects of
breastfeeding on common infections in the first 8 to12 months of life.8, 27,29,30 One
study, which distinguished between infectious diseases until and from the age of 6 months, revealed results similar to those from our
study.24 Although the authors used exclusive
breastfeeding for 3 months as the reference group, exclusive
breastfeeding for 6 months reduced the risk of gastrointestinal tract infections between the ages of 3 and 6 months but not between the ages of 6 and 12 months.24 We can not explain why
breastfeeding duration was only associated with lower risks of lower respiratory tract infection from 7 to 12 months.
We assumed that
breastfeeding rates were correlated between pregnancies based
on several sources of observational data18, 19 and used data from the Infant Feeding Practices
Study II to model
breastfeeding duration in a subsequent pregnancy contingent
on duration of
breastfeeding for the prior birth.19
Of note, our models may underestimate the true maternal costs of suboptimal
breastfeeding; we modeled the effects of lactation
on only five maternal health conditions despite data linking lactation with other maternal health outcomes.46 In addition, women in our model could not develop type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, or MI before age 35 years, although these conditions are becoming increasingly prevalent among young adults.47 Although some
studies have found an association between lactation and rates of postmenopausal diabetes22, 23 and cardiovascular disease, 10 we conservatively limited the
duration of lactation's effect
on both diabetes and MI.
Although not directly comparable, our findings are in broad agreement with those from routine data in Scotland that have indicated a positive association between Baby Friendly accreditation, but not certification, and
breastfeeding at 1 week of age.17 Our findings reinforce those of Coutinho and colleagues who reported that high exclusive
breastfeeding rates achieved in Brazilian hospitals implementing staff training with the course content of the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative were short - lived and not sustained at home unless implemented in combination with post-natal home visits.35 Similarly in Italy, training of staff with an adapted version of the Baby Friendly course content resulted in high
breastfeeding rates at discharge, with a rapid decrease in the days after leaving hospital.36 In contrast, a cluster randomized trial in Belarus (PROBIT) found an association between an intervention modelled
on the Baby Friendly Initiative with an increased
duration of
breastfeeding37 an association also reported from an observational
study in Germany.38 Mothers in Belarus stay in hospital post-partum for 6 — 7 days, and in Germany for 5 days, with post-natal support likely to be particularly important in countries where mothers stay in the hospital for a shorter time, with early discharge likely to limit the influence of a hospital - based intervention.
A more recent
study found that full - time work decreased both initiation and
duration of
breastfeeding, while part - time work had no effect
on either (Fein and Roe, 1998).
Interventions to improve
breastfeeding initiation, exclusivity and
duration are based
on extensive evidence from both observational and intervention
studies of short - and long - term health benefits of
breastfeeding for both mothers and infants.13 — 15 Nevertheless, to our knowledge none of previous
studies has systematically examined whether the increases in
breastfeeding resulting from such interventions have equally benefited all socioeconomic groups.
Furthermore, there has been no large - scale
study of the impact of this intervention
on breastfeeding initiation and
duration, although a
study based in Scotland has provided some evidence for an association between birth in a Baby Friendly facility and increased rates of
breastfeeding at 1 week of age.16, 17
Several
studies have also attempted to understand the role of
breastfeeding on IQ, and although some authors conclude that the observed advantage of
breastfeeding on IQ is related only to genetic and socioenvironmental factors, a recent meta - analysis showed that after adjustment for appropriate key co-factors,
breastfeeding was associated with significantly higher scores for cognitive development than formula feeding.6 Longer
duration of
breastfeeding has also been positively associated with intelligence in adulthood.22 We also observed the benefits of long - term
breastfeeding on mental indices, along with the indirect benefit of balancing the impact of exposure to p, p ′ DDE after adjustment for some socioeconomic variables.
Studies designed to test the effectiveness of intervention in the extension of
breastfeeding to six months have concluded that prenatal education
on breastfeeding is not enough to extend the
duration, and that intervention during both prenatal and postnatal periods might be more effective [16].
A systematic review of current scientific evidence
on the optimal
duration of exclusive
breastfeeding identified and summarized
studies comparing exclusive
breastfeeding for 4 to 6 months, versus 6 months.
Conversely, many researchers have observed a greater risk of overweight in children and adolescents who had not been
breastfed compared with those who had16, 17 or who were
breastfed a shorter rather than longer
duration.18 — 25
On the basis of a review of 11
studies, Dewey26 concluded that «the evidence to date suggests that
breastfeeding reduces the risk of child overweight to a moderate extent.»
Moreover, data for exposures in almost all
studies were based only
on maternal recall, sometimes some years after the exposures, although
studies have shown that mothers remember
breastfeeding durations many years after
breastfeeding has stopped.55 - 57 Furthermore, research shows that mothers of sick children sometimes remember early exposures of their children in greater detail compared with mothers of healthy children, especially when the exposures are publicly perceived to be associated with the outcome
studied.
Breastfeeding may benefit child cognitive development, but few studies have quantified breastfeeding duration or exclusivity, nor has any study to date examined the role of maternal diet during lactation on chi
Breastfeeding may benefit child cognitive development, but few
studies have quantified
breastfeeding duration or exclusivity, nor has any study to date examined the role of maternal diet during lactation on chi
breastfeeding duration or exclusivity, nor has any
study to date examined the role of maternal diet during lactation
on child cognition.
Studies had to be case control for the purpose of the statistical analysis; have breastfeeding as a measured exposure and leukemia as a measured outcome; include data on breastfeeding duration in months, including but not limited to, 6 months or more (where relevant data were unavailable in the publication, the authors of the studies were contacted); and been published in peer - reviewed journals with full text available in E
Studies had to be case control for the purpose of the statistical analysis; have
breastfeeding as a measured exposure and leukemia as a measured outcome; include data
on breastfeeding duration in months, including but not limited to, 6 months or more (where relevant data were unavailable in the publication, the authors of the
studies were contacted); and been published in peer - reviewed journals with full text available in E
studies were contacted); and been published in peer - reviewed journals with full text available in English.
Study Selection To be included in the meta - analyses,
studies had to be case control; include
breastfeeding as a measured exposure and leukemia as a measured outcome; include data
on breastfeeding duration in months; and be published in a peer - reviewed journal with full text available in English.
To be included in the meta - analyses,
studies had to be case control; include
breastfeeding as a measured exposure and leukemia as a measured outcome; include data
on breastfeeding duration in months; and be published in a peer - reviewed journal with full text available in English.
Breastfeeding terms and definitions used in this
study are modifications of those recommended by The Interagency Group for Action
on Breastfeeding.21
Breastfeeding duration is defined by the following categories 1) full and 2) overall.
Although professional lactation support can improve the
duration of overall breast feeding, its effect in improving exclusive breast feeding is unclear.11 18 22 Thus far,
studies that report improvement of rates of exclusive
breastfeeding have involved mainly community based peer counselling strategies.23 24 25 Even then, a randomised trial in the UK recently cast doubt
on the efficacy of this approach.26 There are current recommendations from NICE for the UK - wide implementation of the baby friendly initiative.4 5 6 The 2006 NICE costing report
on routine postnatal care of women and their babies estimates that efforts to improve rates of breast feeding will result in substantial cost savings for the NHS.6
Some barriers include the negative attitudes of women and their partners and family members, as well as health care professionals, toward
breastfeeding, whereas the main reasons that women do not start or give up
breastfeeding are reported to be poor family and social support, perceived milk insufficiency, breast problems, maternal or infant illness, and return to outside employment.2 Several strategies have been used to promote
breastfeeding, such as setting standards for maternity services3, 4 (eg, the joint World Health Organization — United Nations Children's Fund [WHO - UNICEF] Baby Friendly Initiative), public education through media campaigns, and health professionals and peer - led initiatives to support individual mothers.5 — 9 Support from the infant's father through active participation in the
breastfeeding decision, together with a positive attitude and knowledge about the benefits of
breastfeeding, has been shown to have a strong influence
on the initiation and
duration of
breastfeeding in observational
studies, 2,10 but scientific evidence is not available as to whether training fathers to manage the most common lactation difficulties can enhance
breastfeeding rates.
In addition, there was no effect
on breastfeeding duration when the pacifier was introduced at 1 month of age.280 A more recent systematic review found that the highest level of evidence (ie, from clinical trials) does not support an adverse relationship between pacifier use and
breastfeeding duration or exclusivity.281 The association between shortened
duration of
breastfeeding and pacifier use in observational
studies likely reflects a number of complex factors such as
breastfeeding difficulties or intent to wean.281 A large multicenter, randomized controlled trial of 1021 mothers who were highly motivated to
breastfeed were assigned to 2 groups: mothers advised to offer a pacifier after 15 days and mothers advised not to offer a pacifier.
Seven of these
studies provided adjusted ORs, and
on the basis of these
studies, the pooled adjusted OR remained statistically significant at 0.55 (95 % CI: 0.44 — 0.69)(Fig 9).245 The protective effect of
breastfeeding increased with exclusivity, with a univariable summary OR of 0.27 (95 % CI: 0.24 — 0.31) for exclusive
breastfeeding of any
duration.245
Although some SIDS experts and policy - makers endorse pacifier use recommendations that are similar to those of the AAP, 272,273 concerns about possible deleterious effects of pacifier use have prevented others from making a recommendation for pacifier use as a risk reduction strategy.274 Although several observational studies275, — , 277 have found a correlation between pacifiers and reduced
breastfeeding duration, the results of well - designed randomized clinical trials indicated that pacifiers do not seem to cause shortened
breastfeeding duration for term and preterm infants.278, 279 The authors of 1
study reported a small deleterious effect of early pacifier introduction (2 — 5 days after birth)
on exclusive
breastfeeding at 1 month of age and
on overall
breastfeeding duration (defined as any
breastfeeding), but early pacifier use did not adversely affect exclusive
breastfeeding duration.
Agreement between
breastfeeding duration reported prospectively in a diary in 1940 — 1956 by Menstruation and Reproductive History
Study participants and retrospectively
on a questionnaire in 1990 — 1991, according to maternal and infant characteristics, United States
Studies in this category demonstrated a significant effect
on duration of any
breastfeeding, especially in the first two months.
Three publications were excluded: one
study examined only the association between
duration of
breastfeeding and fasting plasma lipids at 17 y of age, and there was no formula - fed group for comparison (21); one examined the effect of nutritional supplementation in pregnant mothers, infants, and children
on serum lipids in later life (18); and one was a review (22).