One active area of research involves the effects of maltreatment and related stressors on major body stress response systems such as the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal (HPA) axis, the catecholamine system (the locus ceruleus (LC)- norepinephrine (NE) / sympathetic nervous system (SNS)-RRB- and the immune system and
the subsequent effects of chronic stress on brain development.