This might imply that our findings are specific to mothers
with high levels of depressive symptoms and clinically aggressive children.
Instead, according to interpersonal theories of depression (Coyne 1976; Joiner and Timmons 2009), contagion may occur when adolescents
with high levels of depressive symptoms engage in maladaptive interpersonal interactions, breeding negative emotional states in their relational partners and possibly exacerbating their depressive symptoms.
They further suggest that all forms of avoidant coping, whether stable or not, were linked
with high levels of depressive symptoms even 2 years later.
A recent study by McLennan and Kotelchuck25 found that mothers of toddlers and preschool - aged children
with high levels of depressive symptoms were less likely to apply preventative practices such as using a car seat and / or using electrical plug covers.
Paradoxically, mothers
with high levels of depressive symptoms may desire and intend to increase their emotional bond in close relationships during times of psychological distress.
Early alcohol use was significantly associated
with high levels of depressive symptoms.
The researchers discovered that about 40 percent of people
with high levels of depressive symptoms «recovered» and the same amount of people developed new depression symptoms at each follow - up visit.
Another study found that high levels of stress were associated
with higher levels of depressive symptoms in 240 adolescents (26).
Namely, both exercise frequencies of ≥ 3 times / week or ≥ 6 times / week with at least 15 min or 30 min each time showed significantly negative association
with higher levels of depressive symptoms in this study.
Individual - level factors such as gender, family incomes and school grade were significantly associated
with high levels of depressive symptom [2].
Boys and girls
with higher levels of depressive symptoms in early adolescence will show higher levels of depressive symptoms in mid - and late adolescence.
More recently, Peek et al. (2006) found that both husbands» and wives» own self - rated health was associated with partner's self - rated health even after accounting for other's demographic, health, and stress characteristics, and Stimpson, Eschbach, and Peek (2007) found that the level of spouse's chronic conditions, but not own conditions, was significantly associated
with higher levels of depressive symptoms.
As anticipated, children
with higher levels of depressive symptoms, either alone or in combination with aggression, demonstrated more negative conceptions of both self and peers than did nonsymptomatic children.
Since low levels of self - efficacy were associated
with higher levels of depressive symptoms in previous studies, the current study investigated the bidirectional and prospective associations between depressive symptoms and academic, social and emotional self - efficacy from early to mid adolescence in a cross-lagged path model.
Adolescents» reports of firm control were also associated
with higher levels of depressive symptoms, as well as with poorer self - efficacy, but these associations occurred only among older youth.
In addition, for on - time maturing girls, more romantic experiences were associated
with higher levels of depressive symptoms both concurrently and longitudinally.
For on - time maturing girls (but not for early - or late --RRB-, lower levels of competence were associated
with higher levels of depressive symptoms concurrently, but not longitudinally.
Whether mothers
with higher levels of depressive symptoms are aware or not, the behaviors associated with depression such as low frequency of talk, emotional dysregulation, and elevated levels of controlling and self - centered messages appear to communicate emotional distance and unavailability to their offspring.
That is, while the slope for time - related change in ADL was 0.269 among respondents with no lifetime adversity and a low level of depressive symptoms, it was 0.781 among those with lifetime adversity combined
with a high level of depressive symptoms.
The time × LCA × depressive symptoms interaction indicated that the time - related increase in ADL became much steeper among those with high lifetime adversity combined
with a high level of depressive symptoms.
The time × LCA × depressive symptoms interaction showed that the time - related increase in IADL became quite steeper when examining those with high lifetime adversity combined
with a high level of depressive symptoms.
The time × LCA × depressive symptoms interaction showed that the time - related increase in functional limitations became much steeper when examining those with high lifetime adversity combined
with a high level of depressive symptoms.
Contrary to our expectations, children of mothers
with higher levels of depressive symptoms did not report more depressive symptoms.
This may cause potential reporter bias, since cognitive theories of depression suggest that mothers
with higher levels of depressive symptoms seem to perceive various aspects of their life, including their child's mental health, in a more negative way compared to mothers with lower levels of depressive symptoms (Kraemer et al. 2003).
For instance, school - age children of mothers
with a high level of depressive symptoms are more likely than their peers to experience emotional distress, depression, and anxiety (Gladstone and Kaslow 1995), as well as higher rates of conduct problems (Luoma et al. 2001; Weissman et al. 1984).
Not exact matches
There are many benefits
of moderate exercise for mom; these include:
higher level of cardiovascular fitness; improved blood lipid profiles and insulin response; improved energy; reduced stress; enhanced maternal - infant relationship and alleviation
of depression
symptoms in those
with major
depressive disorders.
A second, unrelated study that analyzed data from a cohort
of people
with type 1 diabetes in the Pittsburgh area, the Pittsburgh Epidemiology
of Diabetes Complications study (EDC), showed why it is so important to recognize
depressive symptoms in people living
with diabetes: Those who exhibit the
highest level of depressive symptoms are most likely to die prematurely.
Those who reported
high levels of distress and
high levels of depressive symptoms were assigned one
of three interventions, all
of which were designed to reduce the distress associated
with managing diabetes, rather than
symptoms of depression.
Depressive symptoms correlate
with higher fasting and stimulated glucose
levels, even in the absence
of an association
with adiposity in adolescents at risk
of type II diabetes [26].
Their review included all randomized controlled trials (12 total) in which yoga was used as therapy for individuals
with either
depressive disorders, or a
high level of depressive symptoms.
Earlier epidemiological (population) studies have also linked
higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines
with depressive symptoms.
But when
depressive symptoms were combined
with high omega - 6: omega - 3 ratios,
levels of proinflammatory cytokines skyrocketed by up to 40 % more than normal — far beyond the 18 % increase resulting from the presence
depressive symptoms alone.
* Children who left both parents behind in their country
of origin to join other family members or who came to the U.S.
with a parent leaving the other behind in country
of origin reported
higher levels of depressive symptoms.
Adolescents who were depressed who reported
higher baseline
levels of interpersonal difficulties showed a greater and more rapid reduction in
depressive symptoms if treated
with IPT - A compared
with treatment as usual.
Specifically,
higher levels of pedestrian infrastructure, connectivity and prevalence
of public transport stops were associated
with increased odds
of reporting one or more
depressive symptoms.
Inclusion criteria: cancer prognosis
of 6 months or more; major
depressive disorder for ⩾ 1 month not associated
with a change
of cancer or cancer management; and a score
of ⩾ 1.75 on the
Symptom Checklist - 20 (SCL - 20) depression scale (score range 1 — 4,
higher score indicating greater
levels of depressive symptoms).
Perceived neighbourhood disorder was found to be predictive
of late - age depression, 10 and
higher social cohesion11 — 13 and neighbourhood -
level socioeconomic status (SES) 14 — 16 were associated
with fewer
depressive symptoms.
Those living alone and residing in neighbourhoods
with higher levels of connectivity tended to report more
depressive symptoms than their counterparts.
On average, children and adolescents
with chronic physical illnesses had
higher levels of depressive symptoms than their healthy peers — a small to very small effect (Table I).
In contrast, those living alone tended to report more
depressive symptoms than those living
with others, if residing in neighbourhoods
with high levels of connectivity.
The score ranges from 0 to 63 points, where
higher score suggests
higher level of depressive symptoms.28 This questionnaire has exhibited good internal consistency and good convergent and divergent validity in individuals
with MS. 29
However, for
higher levels of pollution (> 43.7 points), there was no significant difference in the odds
of reporting any versus no
depressive symptoms between those living alone and those living
with others.
It is interesting that at
higher levels of access to public transport and crowdedness, those living alone were less likely to report any
depressive symptoms than those living
with others.
The prevalence
of maternal
depressive symptoms reported by screening this large national sample
of indigent mothers interviewed between 1992 and 1993 is similar to the prevalence reported for low - income mothers
of young children at a Baltimore pediatric primary care clinic in 1984 (41 % vs 35 %, respectively).8 In addition, the extent
of family poverty in this study has a «dose - response» association
with maternal
depressive symptoms that is similar to that reported in another (smaller) national sample from the 1990s.15 In both studies, as well as this study, mothers
with lower incomes reported
higher levels of depressive symptoms.
The present meta - analysis shows that young people
with chronic physical illnesses have, on average,
higher levels of depressive symptoms than their healthy peers.
Differences between raters were also expected to lead to
higher levels of depressive symptoms in young people
with chronic illnesses in studies that used parent ratings as a measure
of depressive symptoms (e.g., the Affective Problems scale
of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL); Achenbach, Dumenci, & Rescorla, 2003) than in studies that used self - reports
of the child.
In addition to explanations for above average effect sizes, is has to be explained why young people
with arthritis, cancer, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, HIV infection, and sickle cell disease did not show
higher levels of depressive symptoms than their healthy peers.
Finally, in considering temperament as a vulnerability factor for depression, it is important to note that in addition to behavioural inhibition several theorists have developed temperament models that link additional temperamental styles, particularly Positive Emotion (PE) and Negative Emotion (NE) to depression.58 Many cross-sectional studies have reported that youth and adults
with depressive symptoms exhibit diminished
levels of PE and elevated
levels of NE59, 60,61 and the combination
of these have been associated
with concurrent
depressive symptoms in clinical62, 63 and community samples.61, 64,65 Furthermore, longitudinal studies have found that lower
levels of PE60, 66,67 and
higher level of NE in childhood68 - 70 predict the development
of depressive symptoms and disorders.
As hypothesised, the at - risk group had significantly worse functioning at follow - up,
with significantly
higher levels of depressive symptoms and rates
of mood and anxiety disorders, compared to the not - at - risk group.
There was also a significant difference in subjective
depressive symptoms,
with the at - risk group reporting a
higher level of subjective
depressive symptoms (measured using CES - D) than the not - at - risk.